Today in History -  May 20, 1899 – the American Physical Society (APS) is founded for the advancement and diffusion of the knowledge of physics. It was originally formed at Columbia University by 36 scientists from 17 institutions who elected Henry Rowland as their first president and A.A. Michelson as the first vice-president. It has since grown to a membership of more than 46,000 and publishes some of the most prestigious physics journals in the world. As the APS has grown, it has become ever more involved in issues of public outreach and education. For more information on educational resources in physics, see the APS Education web pages, search the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on applied physics, or visit the comPADRE Digital Library for physics and astronomy education, a partnership of the American Association of Physics Teachers, the APS, the American Astronomical Society, the American Institute of Physics, and the Society for Physics Students.

Also on this date in 1790, Charles Lindbergh makes the first solo flight across the Atlantic. For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on the history of flight or view our Aerospace Engineering Education community site.

Today in History – January 26, 1697-  Isaac Newton solves Bernoulli’s brachistochrone problem, inventing the “calculus of variations”. The story goes that Jean Bernoulli gave Isaac Newton a challenge solve the following problem in six months:

We are given two fixed points in a vertical plane. A particle starts from rest at one of the points and travels to the other under its own weight. Find the path that the particle must follow in order to reach its destination in the briefest time.

Rather than take 6 months, Newton is reported to have solved the problem the next day. However, the solution, which is a segment of a cycloid, was solved, in part, by Leibniz, L’Hospital, Newton and the two Bernoullis. In fact, there appears to have been quite a lively, and in some cases bitter, debate about the fine points of the solution. Regardless, the challenge was to provide the seed for further development of the theory of calculus of variation used in a wide range of engineering problems, such as optimal control and optimization.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s resources on Isaac Newton, the Brachistochrone problem and calculus of variations.

Also on this date in 1905, Cullinan Diamond (“Star of Africa”), the largest diamond ever found, is unearthed. On January 26, 1926, Scottish Engineer John Baird gives first public demonstration of television in London. And in 1992, Americans with Disabilities Act went into effect. Check out the Engineering Pathway’s resources on teaching and learning for persons with disabilities.
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Today in History – July 30, 1959 – Noyce patents the integrated circuit – 50th anniversary.

Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at the small Fairchild Semiconductor start-up company were both working on the concept of an integrated circuit in 1958. Prior to this invention, only parts of a circuit – such as the transistor – were fabricated using semiconductor technology.   Even though some of the other parts were composed of substrates using germanium or silicon, they were soldered together on other substrates to form the circuit.  The integrated circuit concept was to make all of the parts, such as the capacitors and resistors, and their connections out of silicon on a single chip. By September 12, Kilby had built a working model.

On February 6, 1959 Kilby applied for a patent and Texas Instruments was issued U.S. patent # 3,138,743 in 1964 for “Miniaturized electronic circuits”.

Noyce was aware of the work at Texas Instruments and was careful to improve on their design and submitted a more detailed patent application on July 30, 1959. On April 25, 1961, the patent office awarded Robert Noyce the first patent for an integrated circuit, while Kilby’s application was still being analyzed. Both Fairchild and Texas Instruments introduced commercial ICs  in 1961

Today, both men are acknowledged as having independently conceived of the idea and are given credit as the inventors of the integrated circuit. Kilby was co-awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000. Most believe that Robert Noyce would have shared this prize had he been alive. (Nobel Prizes cannot be awarded posthumously.)

Jack Kilby is also well known as the inventor of the portable calculator in 1967 and was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1970. Robert Noyce co-founded Intel in 1968.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on integrated circuits or view our Electrical Engineering Education community site.

Today in History – June 23, 1964 - Kilby patents the integrated circuit.

Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at the small Fairchild Semiconductor start-up company were both working on the concept of an integrated circuit in 1958. Prior to this invention, only parts of a circuit – such as the transistor – were fabricated using semiconductor technology.   Even though some of the other parts were composed of substrates using germanium or silicon, they were soldered together on other substrates to form the circuit.  The integrated circuit concept was to make all of the parts, such as the capacitors and resistors, and their connections out of silicon on a single chip. By September 12, Kilby had built a working model.

On February 6, 1959 Kilby applied for a patent and Texas Instruments was issued U.S. patent # 3,138,743 in 1964 for “Miniaturized electronic circuits”.

Noyce was aware of the work at Texas Instruments and was careful to improve on their design and submitted a more detailed patent application on July 30, 1959. On April 25, 1961, the patent office awarded Robert Noyce the first patent for an integrated circuit, while Kilby’s application was still being analyzed. Both Fairchild and Texas Instruments introduced commercial ICs  in 1961

Today, both men are acknowledged as having independently conceived of the idea and are given credit as the inventors of the integrated circuit. Kilby was co-awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000. Most believe that Robert Noyce would have shared this prize had he been alive. (Nobel Prizes cannot be awarded posthumously.)

Jack Kilby is also well known as the inventor of the portable calculator in 1967 and was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1970. Robert Noyce co-founded Intel in 1968.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on integrated circuits or view our Electrical Engineering Education community site.

Today in History – April 25, 1961 – Robert Noyce and Fairchild awarded patent for the integrated circuit.

Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at the small Fairchild Semiconductor start-up company were both working on the concept of an integrated circuit in 1958. Prior to this invention, only parts of a circuit – such as the transistor – were fabricated using semiconductor technology.   Even though some of the other parts were composed of substrates using germanium or silicon, they were soldered together on other substrates to form the circuit.  The integrated circuit concept was to make all of the parts, such as the capacitors and resistors, and their connections out of silicon on a single chip. By September 12, Kilby had built a working model.

On February 6, 1959 Kilby applied for a patent and Texas Instruments was issued U.S. patent # 3,138,743 in 1964 for “Miniaturized electronic circuits”.

Noyce was aware of the work at Texas Instruments and was careful to improve on their design and submitted a more detailed patent application on July 30, 1959. On April 25, 1961, the patent office awarded Robert Noyce the first patent for an integrated circuit, while Kilby’s application was still being analyzed. Both Fairchild and Texas Instruments introduced commercial ICs  in 1961

Today, both men are acknowledged as having independently conceived of the idea and are given credit as the inventors of the integrated circuit. Kilby was co-awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000. Most believe that Robert Noyce would have shared this prize had he been alive. (Nobel Prizes cannot be awarded posthumously.)

Jack Kilby is also well known as the inventor of the portable calculator in 1967 and was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1970. Robert Noyce co-founded Intel in 1968.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on integrated circuits or view our Electrical Engineering Education community site.

Today in History – April 20, 1940 – RCA Demonstrates Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The history of the SEM begins in 1928 and RCA’s demonstration in 1940. In 1965 the first SEM was marketed by the Cambridge Instrument Company. The provided link includes an article that details the history of the SEM from 1928 to 1965. The author (McMullan), himself an important contributor to this field, traces developments such as the first attempts to image solids (Ruska 1933 and the more successful Von Borries 1940).He discusses von Ardenne’s 1938 highly magnified probe and Mahl’s 1941 transmission electron microscope (TEM).

The author speaks at some length about the Cambridge microscopes since this is where he worked with Oatley and added significant contributions to the field. Other contributors from around the world are detailed. Since this is an excellent article on the history of the SEM until 1965, added here will be a few contributions since that year.

An environmental scanning electron microscope, since it doesn’t need to operate in a vacuum like a standard SEM. Allows for the examination of almost any sample under any gaseous condition. Danilatos in the 1980s first used the term environmental SEM and the first commercial environmental SEM was produced by Electroscan.

In the 1990s Chumbley at Iowa State University, working with R.J. Lee Group, successfully created a remote, web-based control for a SEM. He calls this Project ExCel. This microscope allows pre-collegiate teachers to use the SEM in their classroom by remotely logging in to the SEM at Iowa State and controlling it over the internet. For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’seducational resources on SEMs and microscropy or view our Materials Engineering Education and our Ceramic Engineering Education community sites.

Also on this date in 1902 the Curies isolate radium and in 1964 the first picture phone is demonstrated. For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s nuclear engineering, information technology and picture phones.

Today in History – March 24, 1959 – the maser was patented by Charles Hard Townes (No. 2,879,439), who was a professor at Columbia University. “Maser” is an acronym for “Microwave Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation “.  He had the unique idea for a new microwave generator, based on the idea that excited atoms or molecules could be placed in a reflective microwave cavity, and under appropriate circumstances stimulated emission would take place that could amplify microwave signals (hence the name).  He also suggested that the maser could act as an oscillator and generate microwaves by itself.  At the time, very few people believed that this would be possible.  However, after much hard work working with an ammonia beam, he and his student James P. Gordon and post-doctoral fellow Herbert Zeiger got it to work.  Their results were published in two papers in Physical Review [J.P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger and C.H. Townes, Phys. Rev., 95 (1954) 282 and  J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger and C. H. Townes, Phys. Rev., 99 (1955) 1264.]

Simultaneously and independently, similar work was underway in the Soviet Union by N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov, who shared the 1964 Nobel Prize in physics along with Charles Townes in 1964.

The maser became practical when Nicolaas Bloembergen at Harvard pointed out that a three-level system such as ruby could be used to continuously amplify microwave signals.  Bloembergen received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1981, in part for his contribution to masers.

Extremely low noise microwave amplifiers were constructed using ruby at very low temperatures placed in a microwave cavity.  With this apparatus Arno Penzias and Robert W. Wilson at Bell Laboratories made astrophysical measurements that led to the discovery of a 3 degree cosmic background, verifying the concept of the Big Bang as the origin of the Universe.  They received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1978 for this work that would not have been possible without Townes’ maser.

Townes, who was at Columbia, and his brother-in-law, Arthur Schawlow, who was at Bell Laboratories,  extended the concept of the maser into the infrared and optical regime in a paper “Infrared and Optical Masers,” published in the December 1958 Physical Review.  This required a new concept, an “open resonator,” which consisted of two plane parallel mirrors that would keep the light inside through multiple reflections.

In order to further his understanding of how one might design optical masers, Townes spoke with a graduate student at Columbia University, Gordon Gould, about Gould’s experiments in optical pumping.  After their discussion, Gould sat down and worked out the optical maser concept on his own, including the idea of using parallel mirrors, and called his new invention the “laser.”  He had his notebook patented — an act that later gave him a claim of first priority in a patent dispute.

While Gould’s secrecy kept his ideas from the public eye, the theoretical paper of Townes and Schawlow was hugely influential and began a world-wide race to see who could demonstrate the first infrared or optical maser.

The race to demonstrate the first laser was won on May 16, 1960, when Theodore Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories demonstrated the first laser, consisting of a ruby rod with silvered mirrors on both ends, placed inside of a helical flash lamp that provided optical pumping for the laser.

It was closely followed by a gas laser (a mixture of helium and neon in an electrical discharge) and a laser diode (electrical injection through a p-n junction in gallium arsenide.)

When Prof. Townes received his Nobel Prize, he has a position as Provost at MIT.  He had two graduate students, Elsa Garmire and Raymond Chiao.  He was out of town when the announcement was made, so we came down to the airport with a banner saying “Congratulations Dr. Townes.”  In those days we could walk right up to the airplane.  He was surprised and pleased.

Both Ray and I did our research work on the rapidly burgeoning field of Nonlinear Optics.  Because the laser was so new, and the ruby laser so powerful, you could shine it into almost any medium and see new effects.  First we worked to understand the powerful new frequencies that were generated when laser light was focused into some organic liquids.  The origin was a nonlinear coherent interaction induced between the  powerful coherent light and molecular vibrations within the liquid.  It was called stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), since Raman was the first person to observe and explain spontaneous scattering off molecular vibrations.  Next we explored a similar nonlinear coherent scattering off acoustic waves.  This was called stimulated Brillouin scattering, named after well-known spontaneous Brillouin scattering (SBS).  We were the first to observe the effect, which caused a strong retro-reflection, with a slight frequency shift.

Both effects subsequently had important applications  — SRS provided new coherent light sources at wavelengths that could not be reached by ordinary lasers— SBS was shown to result in “phase conjugation,” an important new pheonomenon that has helped to correct aberrations in optical systems.   Both effects contributed problems, however, in fiber optic systems.  Optical communications wants light pulses to travel undisturbed for long distances.  But SRS and SBS both caused new frequencies and retro-reflection that seriously disturbed fiber optic transmission.  Systems have to be specially designed to avoid these nonlinear effects.

The last major contribution of those very special years at MIT (1962 – 1966) was the theoretical prediction that in a medium with a nonlinear refractive index, an intense light beam could make its own waveguide and light could subsequently travel without spreading out.  This work led to an understanding of optical solitons, both in space and also in time (while traveling down optical fibers).  The latter has become a very important mode of optical communications.

Thus the earliest research with lasers done by Dr. Townes and his students provided input to the field of nonlinear optics that continues to have important ramifications today.

As a physicist at Cal Tech I started working with artists who were interested in the use of lasers for light shows. Ivan Dryer, Dale Pelton and I formed Laser Images, Inc. to create planetarium laser shows in the Los Angeles area. The Laserium became the inspiration for other companies and artists to create laser shows and displays. These laser shows became part of planetarium productions, rock concerts and even corporate events. The Laserium played in 46 cities worldwide, and were viewed by over 20 million people. It was the longest running theatrical attraction in the history of Los Angeles. Today lasers have a wide range of uses, such as in laser pointers or removing graffiti.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on lasers and  applied physics or view our Electrical Engineering Education community site.

Also on this date in  1882  Koch discovers tuberculosis bacillus.     See our educational resources on tuberculosis and biomedical engineering.

Today in History – February 17, 1998 – “ Voyager 1 becomes the most distant human-made object from the Sun. Voyager 1 was launched on September 5, 1977 and it passed Saturn in November 1980. It continues a trajectory that takes it out of the solar system, making it the most distant spacecraft from Earth and our Sun (as far as we know). It has passed the termination shock, the place where the solar wind abruptly slows down, and traveled through a zone called the heliosheath where the Sun’s magnetic field and solar wind dominate the environment. Its boundary, called the heliopause, is where the interstellar wind takes over. A second spacecraft, the Voyager 2, was launched earlier on August 20, 1977 but Voyager 1 reached the outer solar system and interstellar space earlier due to its trajectory design for outer space and gravity-assist from Jupiter.

Sharing Carl Sagan‘s belief that Earth is not the only planet with advanced technology, I find the “Golden Record “ one of the most interesting parts of the Voyager mission. This gold-plated copper “phonograph record” is a kind of time capsule, intended to communicate a story of our world to extraterrestrials. Assembled by a committee chaired by Carl Sagan of Cornell University, these sounds and images were “selected to portray the diversity of life and culture on Earth“.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway‘s resources on the Voyager 1 and space exploration. For related educational resources, visit the Aerospace Engineering Education Community site. The Engineering Pathway also hosts Engineering Education communities in all ABET-accredited disciplines.

Also on this date in 1901, Kettering’s first electric self-starter was installed on automobile, allowing drivers to start the automobile engine without having to crank it. Kettering was involved in a number of research projects at Delco Automotive, inventing a portable electric generator and other important automobile innovations, such as electric lights for automobiles for night time use. General Motors purchased Delco in 1916, much due to Kettering’s inventions and commercial successes. Kettering led a research and development division at General Motors and became a vice president in the company in 1920. He continued to develop new technologies for automobiles throughout his life, including spark plugs, leaded gasoline, automatic transmissions, and four-wheel brakes, diesel engines, safety glass, and the refrigerant Freon.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway‘s resources on the Kettering and automotive design. For related educational resources, visit the Mechanical Engineering Education Community site.

Today in History – February 11, 1939 – a “one page note” appeared in the magazine Nature by Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, entitled “Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: A New Type of Nuclear Reaction,” where for the first time a theoretical explanation for the splitting of uranium atoms was published and the term “fission” was coined for that process using the analogy of cell division in biology.

The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded the 1944 Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1945 to Otto Hahn, for the discovery of nuclear fission. Lisa Meitner’s work was overlooked by the Nobel Prize Committee, as was the work of the French team Joliot-Curie and Savich. Lise Meitner, a physicist, who collaborated for 30 years with Otto Hahn, a chemist, had to flee Nazi Germany in the summer of 1938, on the brink of discovery of nuclear fission. Otto Hahn never acknowledged Meitner’s or anybody else’s contribution to the discovery of nuclear fission. The dispute about who has priority over this discovery that changed the world remains to this day.

The story began in 1932 with the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick, who was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935 for this work. The same year, Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to husband and wife Frederic Joliot and Irene Joilot-Curie for discovery of artificial radioactivity induced by alpha particles. Enrico Fermi, suspecting that neutrons could penetrate the nucleus more easily than positively charged alpha particles, started systematically bombarding all known chemical elements starting from hydrogen and moving through the periodic table of elements. After two years of experiments Fermi was ready to bombard uranium (the heaviest element known at that time with atomic number Z = 92) with neutrons, expecting that an unknown transuranium element with atomic number 93 could be formed by the beta-decay of the uranium isotopes produced by irradiation. Fermi measured new sources of radioactivity, but was not able to chemically identify those”new” transuranium elements. (Fermi was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 1938 for “his demonstration of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought by slow neutrons.)

The same happened to the German team of Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann in 1937: They had the best radiochemistry and nuclear physics expertise at that time but were not able to correctly identify newly formed “transuranium” radioisotopes.

The French team of Irene Joliot-Curie and Pavle Savich then entered the competition, and devised their own experiments. In resulting papers published in 1937 and in October 1938, Joliot-Curie and Savich pointed out a new radioisotope with a relatively large half life of 3.5 hours, that had properties of Lanthanum (in the middle of periodic table, Z = 57). They were within a hair’s breadth of discovering nuclear fission, but did not rule out the possibility that it could be some unknown transuranium isotope, with Z > 92.

The experimental results published in the 1938 Joliot-Curie and Savich paper convinced F. Strassman and O. Hahn to repeat their experiments (by that time L. Meitner had left Nazi Germany and fled to Sweden). Although far apart, Hahn and Meitner exchanged letters almost daily, discussing possible explanations of the experimental results (Ruth Lewis Sime gives details of their correspondence at that time). Hahn also secretly visited Meitner in Copenhagen in November 1938, where she expressed her dissatisfaction with the results and demanded more experiments. O. Hahn and F. Strassmann’s famous paper was published on January 6, 1939 in German scientific journal Naturwissenschaften, where they pointed out: “We must name Barium, Lanthanum and Cerium, what was called previously Radium, Actinium and Thorium. This is a difficult decision, which contradicts all previous nuclear physics experiments.” Although O. Hahn and F. Strassmann confirmed in their paper the presence of radioactive species which behaved as chemical elements in the middle of the periodic table, namely, Barium (Z = 56) and Lanthanum (Z = 57), they failed explain the physics behind the process and did not recognize that the atomic numbers (i.e., the number of protons) of the elements formed after a uranium nucleus is split must add up to 92.

The theory of nuclear fission was recognized and explained for the first time by Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch in their famous paper published in the English journal Nature on February 11, 1939, after Frisch conducted his “recoil” experiment in which he was able to detect large ionization signals due to presence of fission fragments. The new process was named by them and explained using Bohr’s “liquid drop” model of the nucleus. They also calculated that two fission fragments should gain a total kinetic energy of 200 MeV, and pointed out that this was by far the largest energy released in any previously known reactions, and was due to the conversion of mass into energy according to the famous Einstein’s mass-energy relation.

Otto Hahn never acknowledged Meitner’s contribution to the discovery of nuclear fission. Ruth Sime points out: “For the rest of his life, Hahn provided a standard explanation: fission was a discovery that relied on chemistry only and took place after Meitner left Berlin; she and physics had nothing to do with it, except to prevent it from happening sooner. Hahn was believed, he was a Nobel laureate, and a very famous man. Strassmann, very much in his shadow, saw it differently. Lise Maitner had been the intellectual leader of their team, he insisted, and she remained one of them, through her correspondence with Hahn, even after she left. Meitner herself said a little, other than to point out to the essential interdependence of physics and chemistry throughout the long investigation. Privately, she described Hahn’s behavior as “simply suppressing the past (in Nazi Germany).” And, she added, “I am part of his suppressed past.”

The French group also did not receive the recognition for their contribution to the discovery of nuclear fission.

Personal note: I had a chance to meet with Pavle Savich at the Vinca Nuclear Science Institute near Belgrade (former Yugoslavia, now Serbia) where I worked before coming to the US, and to hear from one of the players the first-hand story about the discovery of nuclear fission. He always regretted that Irene Joliot-Curie and he were not confident enough to include a possibility of splitting of uranium in their 1937 and 1938 papers. It was confirmed in Meitner’s letter to Hahn in 1939: “In one of their C[omptes] R[endus] articles they emphasized strongly that their 3.5 h substance had very remarkable chemical properties and emphasized the similarity to lanthanum. The fact that they tried to place it among the transuranes doesn’t change their experimental findings. And these findings led you to begin your experiments. And again you have not stated that quite clearly”.One must not take people’s words so literally. Curie obviously saw that something remarkable was going on, even is she did not think of fission. In November [1938] Hevesy heard her say in a lecture that entire periodic system arises from U + n bombardment.” Irene Joliot-Curie was correct.

An excellent book Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics, that covers in great detail Lise Meitner’s life and career, was written by Ruth Lewin Sime and published by the University of California Press in 1996. Sime notes that the Nobel committee’s failure to recognize Meitner’s contributions were partly due to her physical exile and also institutional sexism. The international community did recognize this Nobel “mistake” and in 1966, Hahn, Meitner, and Strassmann were awarded the U.S. Fermi Prize for “for pioneering research in the naturally occurring radioactivities and extensive experimental studies leading to the discovery of fission”.

See the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn and nuclear fission. or visit the Nuclear Engineering Education community site for more information. Also our resources on women in science and gender equity today.

Today in History – February 6, 1959 - Kilby patents the integrated circuit.

Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at the small Fairchild Semiconductor start-up company were both working on the concept of an integrated circuit in 1958. Prior to this invention, only parts of a circuit – such as the transistor – were fabricated using semiconductor technology.   Even though some of the other parts were composed of substrates using germanium or silicon, they were soldered together on other substrates to form the circuit.  The integrated circuit concept was to make all of the parts, such as the capacitors and resistors, and their connections out of silicon on a single chip. By September 12, Kilby had built a working model.

On February 6, 1959 Kilby applied for a patent and Texas Instruments was issued U.S. patent # 3,138,743 in 1964 for “Miniaturized electronic circuits”.

Noyce was aware of the work at Texas Instruments and was careful to improve on their design and submitted a more detailed patent application on July 30, 1959. On April 25, 1961, the patent office awarded Robert Noyce the first patent for an integrated circuit, while Kilby’s application was still being analyzed. Both Fairchild and Texas Instruments introduced commercial ICs  in 1961

Today, both men are acknowledged as having independently conceived of the idea and are given credit as the inventors of the integrated circuit. Kilby was co-awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000. Most believe that Robert Noyce would have shared this prize had he been alive. (Nobel Prizes cannot be awarded posthumously.)

Jack Kilby is also well known as the inventor of the portable calculator in 1967 and was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1970. Robert Noyce co-founded Intel in 1968.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on integrated circuits or view our Electrical Engineering Education community site.