Today in History – December 14, 1967 – DNA was first created in a test tube. Working with a variety of bacteria, Arthur Kornberg synthesized genetically active DNA. He used very small bacterial viruses (phages), such as the phi X174 and M13 viruses of E. coli, for his study. Their relatively comparatively short DNA strands made these viruses easier to keep intact during handling and easier to observe their biological activity.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s resources on Kornberg and DNA. For related educational resources, visit the Biological Engineering Education or the Biomedical Engineering Education disciplinary communities.

Today in History – December 2, 1982- Dr. William C. DeVries carried out a series of five implants in Utah over the next three years using the Jarvik total artificial heart. Although the first patients did not live past a year, further patients received the artificial heart designed by Robert K. Jarvik, MD, as a temporary device while awaiting heart transplants. The unusual openness of this medical experiment allowed doctors and designers to learn how to improve the clinical outcomes in subsequent patients with the Jarvik 7, “a device that is still used today and has the highest success rate of any mechanical heart or assist device in the world.” For more information see the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on the Jarvik artificial heart and the human heart and heart transplants.

Readers may want to view our November 29 blog on the first open heart surgery in 1994 that laid the foundation for today’s heart surgery. Working as a team, the Johns Hopkins Hospital’s chief surgeon, Dr. Alfred Blalock (center photo), surgical technician Vivien T. Thomas (portrait, second from right), and pediatric cardiologist Dr. Helen Taussig (right photo) developed a method for improving the flow of oxygen into the blood by connecting one of the heart’s major arteries with another feeding into the lungs.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s resources on biomedical engineering or go to the Biomedical Engineering and Bioengineering Education Community site.

Also on this date in history in 1957 the first full-scale U.S. nuclear power plant begins operating in Shippingport, Pennsylvania – 15 years to the day after Fermi’s experiment at the University of Chicago. The reactor plant was designed by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation in cooperation with the Division of Naval Reactors of the Atomic Energy Commission. The Shippingport nuclear powerplant was retired in 1982. Concerns about public safety, terrorist use of nuclear materials and the Three Mile Island nuclear accident killed the commerical nuclear indutry in the U.S. However, the nuclear option is being reconsidered in light of its lighter environmental impact over fossil fuels for generating electricity. As with all technologies, engineers must work with the public to evaluate the ethical and social consequences of any technological development and deployment. See the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on nuclear energy or visit the Nuclear Engineering Education community site for more information.

Today in History – November 29, 1944 – doctors at Johns Hopkins performed the surgery that laid the foundation for today’s heart surgery, such as coronary bypass surgery. Working as a team, the Johns Hopkins Hospital’s chief surgeon, Dr. Alfred Blalock (left photo), African American surgical technician Vivien T. Thomas (center portrait), and pediatric cardiologist Dr. Helen Taussig (right photo) developed a method for improving the flow of oxygen into the blood by connecting one of the heart’s major arteries with another feeding into the lungs. First used on a young girl with a combination of heart defects that so starved her for oxygen that her skin was literally blue, it became known as the Blue Baby Operation.

All three members of the team continued to make huge contributions to medical research and practice. Alfred Blalock was elected to the National Academy of Science and received the Chevalier de la Legion d’Honneur, the Passano Award, the Matas Award, and the Albert Lasker Medical Research Award.

Dr. Taussig becamame one of the most influential and pioneering women in medicine, being considered the founder of pediatric cardiology. She has received widespread recognition and honors for her contributions to cardiology, including the French Chevalier Legion d’Honneur, the Italian Feltrinelli Prize, the Peruvian Presidential Medal of Honor, and the United States of America Medal of Freedom.

Vivien Thomas’ achievements became widely recognized as well. He supervised the surgical laboratories at Hopkins for over 35 years, and in 1976 he was appointed instructor in surgery at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. In 1976, he was awarded the honorary degree Doctor of Laws, by the Johns Hopkins University.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s resources on biomedical engineering or go to the Biomedical Engineering and Bioengineering Education community site. Readers may also be interested in our resources on gender equity and African American Engineers and Scientists.

Also on this date in history in 1877, Thomas Edison demonstrates hand-cranked phonograph. See the November 21 blog on Edison’s announcement of his “taking machine” and the contrast with the release of “Toy Story”, the first full-length movie created entirely by computer animation. Or browse the Engineering Pathway‘s resources on Edison and digital music.

Today in History – November 24, 1859 – Charles Darwin publishes his “On the Origin of the Species“, explaining the theory of evolution.

Although controversial in some circles, the theory of evolution is a fundamental part of our understanding of biological systems and agricultural engineering and genetic engineering. The BioQuest biological curriculum uses controversy as part of their pedagogical approach based on a 3P’s approach to science education: Problem-posing, Problem-solving, and Peer Persuasion.

Evolution used to take a geologic time to take its course, but human intervention has now hastened that process into a matter of few months. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are currently under the global limelight because of their increased presence in our food sources. A rising movement for food that has not been genetically engineered and is sustainably farmed is reflected in the booming organic food market in the recent few years. On November 12, latest research from Mintel confirms that, in light of prominent health and food safety concerns, the organic movement has most definitely burst onto the mainstream. Mintel reports that organic food sales have grown a whopping 132% since 2002, while organic beverage sales nearly doubled (97%) during the same period. Together, the organic food and beverage markets now make up a nearly $6 billion dollar a year industry.

The controversy on eating these genetically modified foods lies in the lack of information on the impact they may have on our health. Research dollars are being invested to elucidate the benefits and potential side effects on health due to consumption of genetically modified foods. Before any ill effects have yet to be found, the application of genetics to our foods already has some obvious advantages such as enhanced flavors and increased overall food production. Furthermore, before geneticists even tampered with our food, we have been eating foods that farmers grew using techniques to select for the most desirable qualities of each species and incorporating them into one superior product, only now genetics has made this process faster and easier to achieve the same effect.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway‘s resources on Darwin and the theory of evolution, For related educational resources, visit the Biological Systems and Agricultural Engineering Education or the Bioengineering and Biomedical Engineering Education community sites. Or visit the BEN (Biological Educator’s Network), our Pathway Partner in the National Science Digital Library (NSDL).

Today in History – November 11, 1865 – Mary Edward Walker, the first Army female surgeon, was awarded the Medal of Honor for her work during the Civil War. Dr. Mary Walker changed the face of medicine as a physician and as an advocate for women’s rights and healthy cothing for women. As she concluded in 1897, “I am the original new woman…Why, before Lucy Stone, Mrs. Bloomer, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony were – before they were, I am. In the early ’40′s, when they began their work in dress reform, I was already wearing pants…I have made it possible for the bicycle girl to wear the abbreviated skirt, and I have prepared the way for the girl in knickerbockers.

Today, women make up over 50% of the medical school students and women students are reaching parity in bioengineering and biomedical engineering as well – yet they are still less than 10% of the medical and engineering faculty. A recent study of the National Academies titled Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering found unintentional biases were a major contributor to the low number of women on our science and engineering faculties. Women face barriers to hiring and promotion in research universities in many fields of science and engineering — a situation that deprives the United States of an important source of talent as the country faces increasingly stiff global competition in higher education, science and technology, and the marketplace. Eliminating gender bias in universities requires immediate, overarching reform and decisive action by university administrators, professional societies, government agencies, and Congress. The report was motivated by former Harvard President Larry Summers’ speculation that the low numbers of women in science and engineering are because women don’t want to work hard enough and that there may be a biological basis. His discounted discrimination as a tertiary factor. See the Engineering Pathway’s Engineering Diversity site and our resources on gender equity.

Also on this date, Milikan introduced cosmic rays in 1925 and the Nobel prize for physics is awarded for diffraction of electrons by crystals in 1937.

Today in History – November 4, 1946 – Benjamin Palmer patents artificial leg technology. The leg had a relatively noiseless pliable joint that preserved its contour in all positions and contained tendons of gut and springs to give more elasticity, stength, durability and freedom of motion than previously available. It was by no means the first artificial leg, but was the first to be patented in the U.S. with these features. According to the inMotion website: the first written record of a prosthesis is the Rig-Veda, an ancient sacred poem of India written in Sanskrit between 3500 and 1800 B.C. The poem recounts the story of a warrior, Queen Vishpla, who lost her leg in battle, was fitted with an iron prosthesis, and returned to combat.

Today, biomedical engineering and bioengineering combine multiple fields of biology and engineering. Biomedical/Bio-engineers work closely with biologists, medical doctors and health practictioners to develop medical instruments, artificial organs, prosthetic devices, drug delivery systems, diagnostics and imaging systems, and tissue engineering. Our Biomedical and Bioengineering Education Community site has related news, events and curricular resources. Also see our resources for and about persons with disabilities in science and engineering.

Also on this date, Faraday discovered diamagnetism in 1845, the first cash register was patented by James and John Ritty in 1879 and African American Thomas Elkins patents an improved refrigerator design in 1879.

Today in History – November 1, 1848 – opening of the Boston Female Medical College, the first medical school for women in the world. Twelve women enroll in the first class and graduate in 1850. The Boston medical establishment’s reaction was immediately condemnatory, claiming women had insufficient stamina to deal with the tension of medical practice. A total of 98 women earned their degrees from the college over the next two decades, along with a larger number of midwives and other allied professionals. Today, women make up over 50% of the medical school students and women students are reaching parity in bioengineering and biomedical engineering as well – yet they are still less than 10% of the medical and engineering faculty.

A recent study of the National Academies titled Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering found unintentional biases were a major contributor to the low number of women on our science and engineering faculties. Women face barriers to hiring and promotion in research universities in many fields of science and engineering — a situation that deprives the United States of an important source of talent as the country faces increasingly stiff global competition in higher education, science and technology, and the marketplace. Eliminating gender bias in universities requires immediate, overarching reform and decisive action by university administrators, professional societies, government agencies, and Congress. The report was motivated by former Harvard President Larry Summers’ speculation that the low numbers of women in science and engineering are because women don’t want to work hard enough and that there may be a biological basis. His discounted discrimination as a tertiary factor. Seems a bit like “back to the future” when considering the medical community’s response to the opening of the first medical school for women. The National Academy report emphasized that both men and women need to be educated as how to achieve gender equity in science and engineering. See the Engineering Pathway’s Engineering Diversity site and our resources on gender equity.

Also on this date, Edison files to patent his electric lamp in 1879, the U.S. detonates first H-bomb in 1952, the Mackinac Bridge opens as world’s largest suspension bridge of its day in 1957, and the Arecibo Observatory opens in 1963.

Today in History – October 18, 1962 - Watson, Crick, and Wilkins receive Nobel Prize for the discovery of DNA as a double helix. They first proposed their model for the structure of DNA in 1953. As this model was composed of two right-handed, antiparallel, polynucleotide chains coiled around a common axis it is sometimes referred to as the  double helix. They received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1962 “for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material”.

Rosalind Franklin’s work was pivotal in the development of the understanding the structure of DNA as well. She discovered the existence of the A and B forms of DNA and her X-ray crystallographies clearly showed x-ray diffraction patterns of DNA. Alas Rosalind Franklin died of cancer in 1958 at the young age of 37, possibly due to expose to the X-rays she worked with. Watson, Crick and Wilson only recently credited her contributions as key to the development of their model of DNA. Many have speculated that sexism was the reason for not giving her more credit earlier. Regardless, Nobel Prizes are never awarded posthumously so this would not have changed the names on the 1962 award. For more information, see the Rosalind Franklin Society, whose goal is to honor the achievements of Rosalind Franklin by recognizing, fostering, and making known the important contributions of women in science.  “Franklin symbolizes progress for women in science — her contributions were not recognized during her lifetime or for many years after her death but today her work is highlighted in textbooks around the world. “

Today, women make up over 50% of the medical school students and women students are reaching parity in bioengineering and biomedical engineering as well – yet they are still less than 10% of the medical and engineering faculty. A recent study of the National Academies titled Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering found unintentional biases were a major contributor to the low number of women on our science and engineering faculties. Women face barriers to hiring and promotion in research universities in many fields of science and engineering — a situation that deprives the United States of an important source of talent as the country faces increasingly stiff global competition in higher education, science and technology, and the marketplace. Eliminating gender bias in universities requires immediate, overarching reform and decisive action by university administrators, professional societies, government agencies, and Congress. The report was motivated by former Harvard President Larry Summers’ speculation that the low numbers of women in science and engineering are because women don’t want to work hard enough and that there may be a biological basis. His discounted discrimination as a tertiary factor.

See the Engineering Pathway’s Bioengineering / Biomedical Engineering Community site or our resources on Rosalind Franklin, Engineering Diversity site and our resources on gender equity.

Also on this date, October 18, 1955, the antiproton is discovered. See our related resources on antimatter.

Today in History – April 25, 1925 – Florence Rena Sabin is the first woman elected to National Academy of Science. Dr. Florence Rena Sabin, Professor of Histology in the Johns Hopkins Medical School was also the first woman to be a full professor in that institution and also the first woman to be President of the American Association of Anatomists. She became a leader for her research in embryology and histolology (the study of tissues). The National Academy of Science tribute to Dr. Sabin recongizes that: By her example she did more than any other person to open the careers of scientific investigation in laboratories, medical schools, and hospitals to women.

I was interested in Dr. Rena Sabin as she started her academic career at Smith College, where I am now a second year student. After graduation in order to earn money for medical school, Dr. Sabin taught mathematics in Denver for two years. After that she served as an assistant in the Zoology Department at Smith College from 1895 to 1896.

Even in her retirement Dr. Florence Rena Sabin was a pioneer as a public health activist in Colorado and in 1951 received a Lasker Award for this work. It was during this period that she is known for one of her more famous quotes: The prohibition law, written for weaklings and derelicts, has divided the nation, like Gaul, into three parts — wets, drys, and hypocrites.

Check out the Engineering Pathway‘s many educational resources on women in medicine, women in science, women in engineering, women inventors and gender equity.

For a more in depth analysis of the issues associated with gender equity in our faculties and recommended solutions, read the Engineering Pathway’s “most commented” resource – the National Academies’ Beyond Bias and Barriers report. My mother’s editorial on the report was published in ASEE Prism, November 2006, vol. 16 (3).

Also on this date in history in 1953, the DNA double helix was published in Nature by James Watson and Francis Crick and the integrated circuit was first patented by Robert Noyce in 1961. My mother’s blog on the Discovery of the Structure of DNA addresses Rosalind Frankin’s role in this discovery; she died before the Nobel Prize was awarded but is now recognized for her critical contributions.

Today in History – April 21, 1997 – Timothy Leary and Gene Roddenberry launched into orbit. LSD guru Timothy Leary and “Star Trek” creator Gene Roddenberry (left image) hitched a ride into space, along with 22 other people as part of a new commercial “memorial space flight” venture of Texas-based Celestis Inc. The Spanish Pegasus rocket took off from the Canary Islands and propelled ashes of the “founders flight” into orbit, contained within small lipstick-size vials (center image) that would orbit the Earth for six years and then completely burn up when they re-entered the atmosphere. Roddenberry and Leary were ideal candidates for the first memorial space flight, with careers that focused on “outer” and “inner” space, respectively.

Although this experiment in spreading the ashes of cremated dignitaries into space got all of the publicity, the main mission of the launch was a joint project between the University of California-Berkeley and a Spanish aerospace institute with the goal of launching Spain’s first research satellite.

Although I never met Roddenberry, his body of work had a big influence on me and inspired me to pursue a career in technology.  He was a colleague of childhood friend of my family science fiction writer Jack Williamson. They were both inducted into the Science Fiction Hall of Fame. Timothy Leary called our house once to talk to my husband. It was kind of interesting to overhear the conversation. I think of them being together as explorers of inner and outer spaces.

Also on this date in 1994, the first extra-solar planets were discovered. These planets were orbiting a neutron star, PSR B1257+12, during a large search for pulsars conducted in 1990 with the giant, 305-m Arecibo radiotelescope.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s resources on extra-solar planets, pulsars and aerospace engineering. For curricular resources, visit the Aerospace Engineering Education community site.