Today in History – April 25, 1925 – Florence Rena Sabin is the first woman elected to National Academy of Science. Dr. Florence Rena Sabin, Professor of Histology in the Johns Hopkins Medical School was also the first woman to be a full professor in that institution and also the first woman to be President of the American Association of Anatomists. She became a leader for her research in embryology and histolology (the study of tissues). The National Academy of Science tribute to Dr. Sabin recongizes that: By her example she did more than any other person to open the careers of scientific investigation in laboratories, medical schools, and hospitals to women.

I was interested in Dr. Rena Sabin as she started her academic career at Smith College, where I am now a second year student. After graduation in order to earn money for medical school, Dr. Sabin taught mathematics in Denver for two years. After that she served as an assistant in the Zoology Department at Smith College from 1895 to 1896.

Even in her retirement Dr. Florence Rena Sabin was a pioneer as a public health activist in Colorado and in 1951 received a Lasker Award for this work. It was during this period that she is known for one of her more famous quotes: The prohibition law, written for weaklings and derelicts, has divided the nation, like Gaul, into three parts — wets, drys, and hypocrites.

Check out the Engineering Pathway‘s many educational resources on women in medicine, women in science, women in engineering, women inventors and gender equity.

For a more in depth analysis of the issues associated with gender equity in our faculties and recommended solutions, read the Engineering Pathway’s “most commented” resource – the National Academies’ Beyond Bias and Barriers report. My mother’s editorial on the report was published in ASEE Prism, November 2006, vol. 16 (3).

Also on this date in history in 1953, the DNA double helix was published in Nature by James Watson and Francis Crick and the integrated circuit was first patented by Robert Noyce in 1961. My mother’s blog on the Discovery of the Structure of DNA addresses Rosalind Frankin’s role in this discovery; she died before the Nobel Prize was awarded but is now recognized for her critical contributions.

Today in History – April 23, 1867 – Zoetrope is patented. Before we had movies, there were a number of devices that took advantage of the “persistence of vision” in using flashing still images to simulate moving images. The zoetrope did this by putting the images on a strip of paper  inside a cylinder with holes, or slits, cut around the side of it. Each of the images were constructed  like a cell in an animation so that as the cylinder spun the user could look through the slits in the side it looks as though the images are moving. The images above are examples from zoetrope designs. Click on the image on the right to see a movie of one in action.

The predecessor of the zoetrope was invented in 1834 by William George Horner, a British Mathematician from Bristol. He called it the  Daedalum which means “wheel of the devil” and this concept was actually based on Joseph Plateau’s phenakistoscope from 1831.

In 1867 the zoetrope became patented in both England and America under the name Daedalum.   William F. Lincoln patented the design in the United States and renamed it the zoetrope.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on Zoetrope and modern movies or view our Entrepreneurship and Innovation Engineering Education community site.

Diethyl ether (C₂H₅-O-C₂H₅), also known as ethyl ether or simply ether, is a clear, highly flammable liquid with a sweet, pungent odor. It vaporizes easily, boiling at a temperature slightly above normal room temperature (34.6 ^oC or 94.3 ^oF). In addition to its use as an anaesthetic, ether is widely used as a solvent in both laboratory and manufacturing applications. It is also used as a starting fluid in diesel engines.

During the 19th century, both ether and chloroform (CHCl₃) were used as anaesthetics during surgery, but by the early 20th century, the use of chloroform was discontinued because it was discovered to be considerably more toxic than ether. Today, ether has been largely replaced as an anaesthetic by several more recently developed substances that are non-flammable and offer reduced side effects. However, it is still used in some developing nations because of its relative non-toxicity and low cost.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s educational resources on medical technology, or view our Bioengineering and Biomedical Engineering Education community site.

Dr. Crumpler was born in Delaware to Absolum Davis and Matilda Webber in 1831. Interestingly enough, the date she received her degree was one year after the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863 – in other words, she received her degree only a year after slavery became illegal (slavery wasn’t even considered fully abolished until 13th amendment which occurred December 12, 1865). Obviously, the discrimination faced at these times for African Americans was unimaginable. Dr.Crumpler didn’t stop with the medical degree; she began her practice in Boston shortly thereafter before moving to Richmond, Virginia at the end of the Civil war in 1865. Richmond, Virginia was part of what was known as the Southern Black Belt. She arrived in Richmond during the Reconstruction era. During this period, blacks experienced very intense discrimination as they struggled to fully break free from the chains of slavery. Dr.Crumpler moved to Richmond because she felt it would be “a proper field for real missionary work, and one that would present ample opportunities to become acquainted with the diseases of women and children. During my stay there nearly every hour was improved in that sphere of labor. The last quarter of the year 1866, I was enabled . . . to have access each day to a very large number of the indigent, and others of different classes, in a population of over 30,000 colored.” In 1883, she published her book “Book of Medical Discourse” in which she gave a summary of her career path. There are no known images of Dr.Crumpler, but the magnitude of her accomplishments are extraordinary making her a prominent figure today in history.

For more information, browse the Engineering Pathway’s resources on African American scientists, engineers & inventors, gender equity, and our engineering diversity website.

Today in History – February 22, 1876 – Johns Hopkins opens as first research university in America.

At his inauguration, Johns Hopkins first president, Daniel Coit Gilman asked: What are we aiming at? The encouragement of research … and the advancement of individual scholars, who by their excellence will advance the sciences they pursue, and the society where they dwell. The result was the nation’s first research university, dedicated to advancing students’ knowledge as well as to advancing research and scholarship. Gilman introduced the importance of integrating teaching and research. The best teachers are usually those who are free, competent and willing to make original researches in the library and the laboratory, Gilman said. The best investigators are usually those who have also the responsibilities of instruction, gaining thus the incitement of colleagues, the encouragement of pupils, the observation of the public.

As the first academic research university in the United States, Johns Hopkins University has, for the past 132 years, been dedicated to a single purpose – expanding knowledge and putting that knowledge to work for the betterment of humanity. Although engineering has been taught at Johns Hopkins since 1912, the G.W.C. Whiting School of Engineering 27 years ago. We are fully committed to the research model of an academic institution and we recognize that in today’s interconnected world, we must continue to harness the tremendous potential offered by new technologies.

Recently I led the Whiting School of Engineering in a strategic planning process. We defined our existing strengths and identified specific areas to train our focus. The plan is based on four interconnected priority areas: Collaboration and Innovation, Bioengineering, Education for Leadership, and Strategic Partnerships. Combined, these priorities comprise our Strategic Plan – our roadmap for the Whiting School’s future.

Today, our engineers are finding new methods to test and treat waste water, building robots that can explore the oceans’ depths or make heart surgery safer, preventing cyber-attacks, and using nano-technology to study and influence the inner workings of cells. In every area of research, Hopkins engineers are engaged in a process of discovery, pioneering new frontiers, and are securing their role as tomorrow’s leaders. Leadership through innovation is what Hopkins Engineering is all about: the global impact of research and education for the betterment of society.

- Nicholas P. Jones, Dean

“For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s resources associated with integrated teaching and research at Johns Hopkins University.

Today in History – December 14, 1967 – DNA was first created in a test tube. Working with a variety of bacteria, Arthur Kornberg synthesized genetically active DNA. He used very small bacterial viruses (phages), such as the phi X174 and M13 viruses of E. coli, for his study. Their relatively comparatively short DNA strands made these viruses easier to keep intact during handling and easier to observe their biological activity.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s resources on Kornberg and DNA. For related educational resources, visit the Biological Engineering Education or the Biomedical Engineering Education disciplinary communities.

Today in History – December 3, 1984 – over 2,000 die and many more injured from Union Carbide’s (now owned by Dow Chemical) poison gas emission (methyl isocyanate) at their agricultural plant in Bhopal, India. Prior to the catastrophe, the Bhopal plant had drastically reduced personnel, particularly in regard to production and maintenance, as it had been losing money for several years due to the weak demand in India for pesticides. At the time of the accident, important safety devices were out of commission and the under-trained staff were not able to contain the poisonous gas.

Globalization is bringing new and complex technologies into the developing world, who may lack the infrastructure to support and maintain these new technologies safely. The low cost of labor enables multinational corporations economic and competitive advantages. Many ethical questions arise as to the extent to which health standards, work conditions and community investments required in the home country should be applied to facilities in developing countries. This disaster can be used as a case study to address the implications of modern technologies on developing nations and the ethical and competitive issues around globalization of production and manufacturing technologies. For example, the Exportation of Risk case study “includes comparisons with Bhopal’s sister plant in Institute, West Virginia, and considers the moral responsibility for preventing such tragedies on the part of multinational corporations, the governments of the industrialized nations where they are head quartered, and the governments of developing countries where they operate. The moral responsibilities of engineers and scientists working for these organizations are also considered.”

There have also been many well-intentioned technologies designed to help the human condition that may have done more harm than good.  The arsenic poisoning from deep well water in Bangladesh has been called the largest mass human poisoning on earth, far exceeding the deaths at Bhopal. Yet, its roots can be traced to World Health Organization projects and participating engineers that encouraged the people of Bangladesh to dig deep wells to avoid the biological hazards of surface water. Now the people of Bangladesh faces a choice – immediate illness and possible death from dysentery or probable long-term suffering and death from arsenic. This problem is particularly challenging as most people in Bangladesh earn less than $1 per day. Fortunately, there are several technology solutions being tested and evaluated for both technical effectiveness and economic sustainability.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s resources on the Bhopal disaster as well as those on globalization or ethics and social implications of technology. For related educational resources, visit the Chemical Engineering Education, Agricultural Engineering Education or the Engineering Ethics Education community sites.

Two decades earlier on this date in 1964, Police arrests launches the free speech movement at the University of California at Berkeley, paving the way for increased openness and inquiry about public events on university campuses, such as the condemnation of the Bhopal disaster and the inadequacies of the response. Today many are concerned that the “Patriot Act” may be stifling this open inquiry with Internet monitoring and other electronic surveillance. Founded in 1990, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) “continues to confront cutting-edge issues defending free speech, privacy, innovation, and consumer rights today. From the beginning, EFF has championed the public interest in every critical battle affecting digital rights.”

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s resources on the Free Speech Movement or ethics and social implications of technology. For related educational resources, visit the Information Technology Education, the Software Engineering Education, or the Computer Science Education disciplinary communities.

This date in 1982 marks International Day of Disabled Persons adopted by United Nations as well as the first human heart transplant in 1967. Both good examples of how technological development can improve the human condition. Also on this date in 1586, Sir Thomas Herriot introduces potatoes to England, from Colombia.

Browse the Engineering Pathway’s related educational resources for and about persons with disabilities or visit the Biological Systems and Agricultural Engineering Education or the Biomedical Engineering Education disciplinary communities.

Today in History – November 29, 1944 – doctors at Johns Hopkins performed the surgery that laid the foundation for today’s heart surgery, such as coronary bypass surgery. Working as a team, the Johns Hopkins Hospital’s chief surgeon, Dr. Alfred Blalock (left photo), African American surgical technician Vivien T. Thomas (center portrait), and pediatric cardiologist Dr. Helen Taussig (right photo) developed a method for improving the flow of oxygen into the blood by connecting one of the heart’s major arteries with another feeding into the lungs. First used on a young girl with a combination of heart defects that so starved her for oxygen that her skin was literally blue, it became known as the Blue Baby Operation.

All three members of the team continued to make huge contributions to medical research and practice. Alfred Blalock was elected to the National Academy of Science and received the Chevalier de la Legion d’Honneur, the Passano Award, the Matas Award, and the Albert Lasker Medical Research Award.

Dr. Taussig becamame one of the most influential and pioneering women in medicine, being considered the founder of pediatric cardiology. She has received widespread recognition and honors for her contributions to cardiology, including the French Chevalier Legion d’Honneur, the Italian Feltrinelli Prize, the Peruvian Presidential Medal of Honor, and the United States of America Medal of Freedom.

Vivien Thomas’ achievements became widely recognized as well. He supervised the surgical laboratories at Hopkins for over 35 years, and in 1976 he was appointed instructor in surgery at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. In 1976, he was awarded the honorary degree Doctor of Laws, by the Johns Hopkins University.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway’s resources on biomedical engineering or go to the Biomedical Engineering and Bioengineering Education community site. Readers may also be interested in our resources on gender equity and African American Engineers and Scientists.

Also on this date in history in 1877, Thomas Edison demonstrates hand-cranked phonograph. See the November 21 blog on Edison’s announcement of his “taking machine” and the contrast with the release of “Toy Story”, the first full-length movie created entirely by computer animation. Or browse the Engineering Pathway‘s resources on Edison and digital music.

Today in History – November 24, 1859 – Charles Darwin publishes his “On the Origin of the Species“, explaining the theory of evolution.

Although controversial in some circles, the theory of evolution is a fundamental part of our understanding of biological systems and agricultural engineering and genetic engineering. The BioQuest biological curriculum uses controversy as part of their pedagogical approach based on a 3P’s approach to science education: Problem-posing, Problem-solving, and Peer Persuasion.

Evolution used to take a geologic time to take its course, but human intervention has now hastened that process into a matter of few months. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are currently under the global limelight because of their increased presence in our food sources. A rising movement for food that has not been genetically engineered and is sustainably farmed is reflected in the booming organic food market in the recent few years. On November 12, latest research from Mintel confirms that, in light of prominent health and food safety concerns, the organic movement has most definitely burst onto the mainstream. Mintel reports that organic food sales have grown a whopping 132% since 2002, while organic beverage sales nearly doubled (97%) during the same period. Together, the organic food and beverage markets now make up a nearly $6 billion dollar a year industry.

The controversy on eating these genetically modified foods lies in the lack of information on the impact they may have on our health. Research dollars are being invested to elucidate the benefits and potential side effects on health due to consumption of genetically modified foods. Before any ill effects have yet to be found, the application of genetics to our foods already has some obvious advantages such as enhanced flavors and increased overall food production. Furthermore, before geneticists even tampered with our food, we have been eating foods that farmers grew using techniques to select for the most desirable qualities of each species and incorporating them into one superior product, only now genetics has made this process faster and easier to achieve the same effect.

For more information, see the Engineering Pathway‘s resources on Darwin and the theory of evolution, For related educational resources, visit the Biological Systems and Agricultural Engineering Education or the Bioengineering and Biomedical Engineering Education community sites. Or visit the BEN (Biological Educator’s Network), our Pathway Partner in the National Science Digital Library (NSDL).

Today in History – November 4, 1946 – Benjamin Palmer patents artificial leg technology. The leg had a relatively noiseless pliable joint that preserved its contour in all positions and contained tendons of gut and springs to give more elasticity, stength, durability and freedom of motion than previously available. It was by no means the first artificial leg, but was the first to be patented in the U.S. with these features. According to the inMotion website: the first written record of a prosthesis is the Rig-Veda, an ancient sacred poem of India written in Sanskrit between 3500 and 1800 B.C. The poem recounts the story of a warrior, Queen Vishpla, who lost her leg in battle, was fitted with an iron prosthesis, and returned to combat.

Today, biomedical engineering and bioengineering combine multiple fields of biology and engineering. Biomedical/Bio-engineers work closely with biologists, medical doctors and health practictioners to develop medical instruments, artificial organs, prosthetic devices, drug delivery systems, diagnostics and imaging systems, and tissue engineering. Our Biomedical and Bioengineering Education Community site has related news, events and curricular resources. Also see our resources for and about persons with disabilities in science and engineering.

Also on this date, Faraday discovered diamagnetism in 1845, the first cash register was patented by James and John Ritty in 1879 and African American Thomas Elkins patents an improved refrigerator design in 1879.